History of smallpox vaccination and marked clinical expression of mpox among cases notified in France from May to July 2022.

OBJECTIVES: The aim was to estimate the effect of reported history of smallpox vaccination prior to 1980 on clinical expression of mpox. METHODS: We included all confirmed mpox cases identified by the national mpox surveillance system in France between May and July 2022. Cases tested positive for monkeypox virus or orthopoxviruses by PCR. Cases were interviewed by phone using a questionnaire documenting demographics, symptoms and exposures. To estimate the effect of smallpox vaccination on the presence of marked mpox symptoms (association of fever, lymphadenopathy and extensive mucocutaneous lesions), we estimated prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% CIs using Poisson regression models with robust standard errors. RESULTS: There were 1888 confirmed mpox cases with date of symptom onset between 7 May and 31 July 2022. Overall, 7% (93/1394) presented marked mpox symptoms. Among patients who provided information about their vaccination status, 14% (207/1469) reported smallpox vaccination prior to 1980. The proportion of cases with marked symptoms was 2% (3/170) among those reporting smallpox vaccination prior to 1980 and 8% (76/974) among those who reported no vaccination. The proportion of marked symptoms was four times lower among cases reporting previous smallpox vaccination than in cases reporting no vaccination (PR, 0.24; 95% CI: 0.08-0.76). There was no evidence of an effect of smallpox vaccination on development of complications (PR, 0.65; 95% CI: 0.35-1.22) or hospitalization due to mpox (PR, 0.64; 95% CI: 0.23-1.80). DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that smallpox vaccination during childhood attenuated the clinical expression of monkeypox virus infection, but there was no evidence of an effect on complications or hospitalization.

Mpox outbreak in France: epidemiological characteristics and sexual behaviour of cases aged 15 years or older, 2022.

BackgroundLocally-acquired mpox cases were rarely reported outside Africa until May 2022, when locally-acquired-mpox cases occurred in various European countries.AimWe describe the mpox epidemic in France, including demographic and behavioural changes among a subset of cases, during its course.MethodsData were retrieved from the enhanced national surveillance system until 30 September 2022. Laboratory-confirmed cases tested positive for monkeypox virus or orthopoxviruses by PCR; non-laboratory-confirmed cases had clinical symptoms and an epidemiological link to a laboratory-confirmed case. A subset of ≥ 15-year-old male cases, notified until 1 August, was interviewed for epidemiological, clinical and sexual behaviour information. Association of symptom-onset month with quantitative outcomes was evaluated by t- or Wilcoxon tests, and with binary outcomes, by Pearson's chi-squared or Fisher exact tests.ResultsA total of 4,856 mpox cases were notified, mostly in Île-de-France region (62%; 3,025/4,855). Cases aged ≥ 15 years were predominantly male (97%; 4,668/4,812), with 37 years (range: 15-81) as mean age. Between May and July, among the subset interviewed, mpox cases increased in regions other than Île-de-France, and mean age rose from 35 (range: 21-64) to 38 years (range: 16-75; p = 0.007). Proportions of cases attending men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM) meeting venues declined from 60% (55/91) to 46% (164/359; p = 0.012); median number of sexual partners decreased from four (interquartile range (IQR): 1-10) to two (IQR: 1-4; p < 0.001).ConclusionChanges in cases' characteristics during the epidemic, could reflect virus spread from people who were more to less behaviourally vulnerable to mpox between May and July, or MSM reducing numbers of sexual partners as recommended.

A comparison of COVID-19 incidence rates across six European countries in 2021.

International comparisons of COVID-19 incidence rates have helped gain insights into the characteristics of the disease, benchmark disease impact, shape public health measures and inform potential travel restrictions and border control measures. However, these comparisons may be biased by differences in COVID-19 surveillance systems and approaches to reporting in each country. To better understand these differences and their impact on incidence comparisons, we collected data on surveillance systems from six European countries: Belgium, England, France, Italy, Romania and Sweden. Data collected included: target testing populations, access to testing, case definitions, data entry and management and statistical approaches to incidence calculation. Average testing, incidence and contextual data were also collected. Data represented the surveillance systems as they were in mid-May 2021. Overall, important differences between surveillance systems were detected. Results showed wide variations in testing rates, access to free testing and the types of tests recorded in national databases, which may substantially limit incidence comparability. By systematically including testing information when comparing incidence rates, these comparisons may be greatly improved. New indicators incorporating testing or existing indicators such as death or hospitalisation will be important to improving international comparisons.

No Impact of Fluconazole to Echinocandins Replacement as First-Line Therapy on the Epidemiology of Yeast Fungemia (Hospital-Driven Active Surveillance, 2004-2017, Paris, France).

Replacement of fluconazole by echinocandins as the first-line therapy for yeast-related fungemia could have an impact on both the mortality rate and the epidemiology of yeast species responsible for candidemia. We analyzed the individual clinical and microbiological data collected through the active surveillance program on yeast fungemia (YEASTS program, 2004-2016, Paris area, France) within 14 University Hospitals. The cohort included 3,092 patients [male:female ratio: 1.56; median age 61.0 years (IQR: 23.8)]. The mean mortality rate within 30 days was 38.5% (1,103/2,868) and significantly higher in intensive care units (690/1,358, 50.8%) than outside (413/1,510, 27.4%, p < 0.0001) without significant change over time. The yeast species distribution [Candida albicans (n = 1,614, 48.0%), Candida glabrata (n = 607, 18.1%), Candida parapsilosis (n = 390, 11.6%), Candida tropicalis (n = 299, 8.9%), Candida krusei (n = 96, 2.9%), rare species (n = 357, 10.6%)], minimal inhibitory concentration distribution, and the distribution between the patient populations (hematological malignancies, solid tumors, without malignancy) did not change either while the proportion of patients ≥60-years increased from 48.7% (91/187) in 2004 to 56.8% (133/234) in 2017 (p = 0.0002). Fluconazole as first-line therapy dramatically decreased (64.4% in 2004 to 27.7% in 2017, p < 0.0001) with a corresponding increase in echinocandins (11.6% in 2004 to 57.8% in 2017, p < 0.0001). Survival rates did not differ according to the first antifungal therapy. The progressive replacement of fluconazole by echinocandins as the first-line antifungal therapy was not associated with change in global mortality, regardless of species involved and antifungal susceptibility profiles. Other factors remain to be uncovered to improve the prognosis of yeast fungemia.

Early assessment of the impact of mitigation measures to control COVID-19 in 22 French metropolitan areas, October to November 2020.

In France, measures including curfew and lockdown were implemented to control the COVID-19 pandemic second wave in 2020. This study descriptively assesses their possible effects, also relative to their timing. A considerable decrease in incidence of COVID-19 cases and hospital admissions was observed 7 to 10 days after mitigation measures were put in place, occurring earlier in metropolitan areas which had implemented these first. This temporal coincidence suggests the measures' positive impact, consistent with international experiences.

[What are the determinants of viral outbreaks and is it possible to predict their emergence?] / Quels éléments président à l'émergence d'une épidémie virale ? Peut-on la prévoir ?

The emergence of a viral disease most often results from an imbalance in the interaction between the infectious agent, the host and the environment. After the introduction phase of a viral disease in a territory or a given population and once the first chains of transmission occur, the spread of the disease or its sustainability are possible if the control measures are not implemented or are not sufficiently effective. If it is difficult to anticipate the occurrence and introduction of an emerging viral disease, the following three key elements must be strengthened to limit its impact: (1) anticipation and preparation; (2) research and (3) monitoring and surveillance. Finally, to guarantee that the measures taken are relevant and acceptable to the population, a multidisciplinary approach must be systematically relied upon and re-evaluated on a prospective basis.

Assessment of the impact of the extension of vaccination mandates on vaccine coverage after 1 year, France, 2019.

One year after the extension of the childhood vaccination mandates to the 11 routine vaccinations for children under 2 years old, we estimated vaccination coverage through vaccine reimbursement data. Coverage for children born in 2018 has notably increased. Moreover, vaccine coverage for children and for vaccines not concerned by the law have also shown an increasing trend, supporting a positive impact of the ongoing communication strategy on vaccination, beyond the extension of vaccination mandates.

[Horizon scanning in preparation for future health threats: a pilot exercise conducted by the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance in 2014]. / La veille prospective, une démarche de préparation aux futures menaces de la santé publique : exercice mené à l'Institut de veille sanitaire en 2014.

Background: Health surveillance is a reactive process, with no real hindsight for dealing with signals and alerts. It may fail to detect more radical changes with a major medium-term or long-term impact on public health. To increase proactivity, the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance has opted for a prospective monitoring approach.Methods: Several steps were necessary: 1) Identification of public health determinants. 2) Identification of key variables based on a combination of determinants. Variables were classified into three groups (health event trigger factors, dissemination factors and response factors) and were submitted to future development assumptions. 3) Identification, in each of the three groups, of micro-scenarios derived from variable trends. 4) Identification of macro-scenarios, each built from the three micro-scenarios for each of the three groups. 5) Identification of issues for the future of public health.Results: The exercise identified 22 key variables, 17 micro-scenarios and 5 macro-scenarios. The topics retained relate to issues on social and territorial health inequalities, health burden, individual and collective responsibilities in terms of health, ethical aspects, emerging phenomena, 'Big data', data mining, new health technologies, interlocking of analysis scales.Conclusions: The approach presented here guides the programming of activities of a health safety agency, particularly for monitoring and surveillance. By describing possible future scenarios, health surveillance can help decision-makers to influence the context towards one or more favourable futures.

Population-based analysis of invasive fungal infections, France, 2001-2010.

To determine the epidemiology and trends of invasive fungal infections (IFIs) in France, we analyzed incidence, risk factors, and in-hospital death rates related to the most frequent IFIs registered in the national hospital discharge database during 2001-2010. The identified 35,876 IFI cases included candidemia (43.4%), Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (26.1%), invasive aspergillosis (IA, 23.9%), cryptococcosis (5.2%), and mucormycosis (1.5%). The overall incidence was 5.9/100,000 cases/year and the mortality rate was 27.6%; both increased over the period (+1.5%, +2.9%/year, respectively). Incidences substantially increased for candidemia, IA, and mucormycosis. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia incidence decreased among AIDS patients (-14.3%/year) but increased in non-HIV-infected patients (+13.3%/year). Candidemia and IA incidence was increased among patients with hematologic malignancies (>+4%/year) and those with chronic renal failure (>+10%/year). In-hospital deaths substantially increased in some groups, e.g., in those with hematologic malignancies. IFIs occur among a broad spectrum of non-HIV-infected patients and should be a major public health priority.

Clinical features and viral diagnosis of two cases of infection with Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus: a report of nosocomial transmission.

BACKGROUND: Human infection with a novel coronavirus named Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) was first identified in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East in September, 2012, with 44 laboratory-confirmed cases as of May 23, 2013. We report detailed clinical and virological data for two related cases of MERS-CoV disease, after nosocomial transmission of the virus from one patient to another in a French hospital. METHODS: Patient 1 visited Dubai in April, 2013; patient 2 lives in France and did not travel abroad. Both patients had underlying immunosuppressive disorders. We tested specimens from the upper (nasopharyngeal swabs) or the lower (bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) respiratory tract and whole blood, plasma, and serum specimens for MERS-CoV by real-time RT-PCR targeting the upE and Orf1A genes of MERS-CoV. FINDINGS: Initial clinical presentation included fever, chills, and myalgia in both patients, and for patient 1, diarrhoea. Respiratory symptoms rapidly became predominant with acute respiratory failure leading to mechanical ventilation and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Both patients developed acute renal failure. MERS-CoV was detected in lower respiratory tract specimens with high viral load (eg, cycle threshold [Ct] values of 22·9 for upE and 24 for Orf1a for a bronchoalveolar lavage sample from patient 1; Ct values of 22·5 for upE and 23·9 for Orf1a for an induced sputum sample from patient 2), whereas nasopharyngeal specimens were weakly positive or inconclusive. The two patients shared the same room for 3 days. The incubation period was estimated at 9-12 days for the second case. No secondary transmission was documented in hospital staff despite the absence of specific protective measures before the diagnosis of MERS-CoV was suspected. Patient 1 died on May 28, due to refractory multiple organ failure. INTERPRETATION: Patients with respiratory symptoms returning from the Middle East or exposed to a confirmed case should be isolated and investigated for MERS-CoV with lower respiratory tract sample analysis and an assumed incubation period of 12 days. Immunosuppression should also be taken into account as a risk factor. FUNDING: French Institute for Public Health Surveillance, ANR grant Labex Integrative Biology of Emerging Infectious Diseases, and the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme projects EMPERIE and PREDEMICS.

[Epidemiology of mucormycosis in metropolitan France, 1997-2010]. / Épidémiologie des mucormycoses en France métropolitaine, 1997-2010.

It is difficult to estimate the increase of the incidence of mucormycosis at a country level because of the low number of studies in general population. This article analyzes and completes the initial data of a previous study carried out between 1997 and 2006 by covering the period 1997-2010 and by integrating a detailed study of the risk factors, confirming the existence of a real increase of incidence of mucormycosis linked with the increasing number of the persons at risk.

[Epidemiology of tuberculosis]. / Epidémiologie de la tuberculose.

Tuberculosis is one of the leading causes of infectious disease worldwide, with an estimate of more than 8 million new cases each year. Tuberculosis notification rates have been decreasing since 2002, but some countries, in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, are still particularly affected. HIV co-infection and the emergence of resistant strains warrant further efforts to improve tuberculosis control worldwide. France is considered as a low incidence country but important disparities between populations and territories exist. Thus, the elderly, those living in large cities or in socio-economic deprived condition and persons born in high-endemic countries are mostly affected. The national tuberculosis program was launched in 2007, aiming at reducing these disparities.

Progress in the surveillance and control of Legionella infection in France, 1998-2008.

BACKGROUND: In France, the notification of Legionnaires' disease (LD) has been mandatory since 1987. Following a study showing an important under-reporting of the disease, the surveillance system was strengthened in 1997: the urinary antigen detection test was introduced as a new diagnostic tool and guidelines for prevention and control of the disease were implemented. After these measures, the incidence of LD increased gradually, reaching 2.5 per 100,000 in 2005, and then slightly decreased (2.0 per 100,000 in 2008). METHODS: Data from the mandatory notification system and from the national reference centre for Legionella were analysed. Analysis covered the 1998-2008 period. RESULTS: During the period 1998-2008 a total of 11147 cases of LD were reported in France through the mandatory system. The majority of cases were diagnosed by urinary antigen test. The median age of cases was 61 years, the male to female ratio was 2.9, and the case fatality rate was 13%. Exposure during travel was documented for 17% of cases. A hospital-acquired infection was suspected for 9% of cases, and this percentage decreased from 21% in 1998 to 7% in 2008. Over this period, 14 community outbreaks were identified involving 380 cases, and cooling towers were the most probable source of infection for 13. No outbreak was reported in 2008. Registration at the regional level of all cooling towers became mandatory at the end of 2004, and the 1997 prevention and control guidelines were updated in 2005. In recent years, several regulations have also been implemented in the hospital setting and care homes for the elderly. CONCLUSION: All these measures have contributed to strengthen the French surveillance system and improve our ability to better prevent, detect, and control LD.

Factors associated with excessively lengthy treatment of tuberculosis in the eastern Paris region of France in 2004.

BACKGROUND: Few data are available on prescriber adherence to tuberculosis (TB) treatment guidelines. In particular, excessively long treatment carries a risk of avoidable adverse effects and represents a waste of healthcare resources. We examined factors potentially associated with excessively long treatment. METHODS: We reviewed the medical records of patients diagnosed with TB in 2004 in the eastern Paris region. Sociodemographic and clinical factors associated with excessively long treatment were identified by logistic regression analyses. Based on contemporary guidelines, excessively long treatment was defined as more than 6 months of a four-drug regimen for thoracic TB with full sensitive strains, and more than 12 months for patients with extrathoracic TB. RESULTS: Analyses concerned 478 patients with a median age of 36.0 +/- 13.5 years, of whom 48% were living in precarious conditions (i.e. poor living conditions and/or no health insurance), 80% were born abroad, and 17% were HIV-seropositive. TB was restricted to the chest in 279 patients (isolated pulmonary, pleuropulmonary, and isolated pleural TB in 245, 13, and 21 patients, respectively), exclusively extrathoracic in 115 patients, and mixed in the remaining 84 patients. Treatment was prescribed by a chest specialist in 211 cases (44.1%) and 295 patients (61.7%) were managed in a single institution. The treatment duration complied with contemporary guidelines in 316 cases (66.1%) and was excessively long in 162 cases (33.9%). The median duration of excessively long treatment was 313 days (IQR: 272-412). In multivariate analysis, isolated thoracic TB, previous TB, HIV infection, a prescriber other than a chest specialist, and management in more than one healthcare center during treatment were independently associated with excessively lengthy treatment. CONCLUSION: One-third of TB patients received excessively long treatment, reflecting inadequate awareness of management guidelines or unwillingness to implement them.

Increasing incidence of zygomycosis (mucormycosis), France, 1997-2006.

We analyzed hospital records to provide a population-based estimate of zygomycosis incidence and trends over a 10-year period at a national level in France. Data showed an increasing incidence from 0.7/million in 1997 to 1.2/million in 2006 (p<0.001). We compared our data with those from the French Mycosis Study Group, a recently established voluntary network of French mycologists coordinated by the National Reference Center for Mycoses and Antifungals. We documented that incidence of zygomycosis increased, particularly in patients with hematologic malignancies or bone marrow transplants. The role of previous exposure to antifungal drugs lacking activity against zygomycetes could explain this increase but does not appear exclusive. Incidence also increased in the population of patients with diabetes mellitus. We conclude that observed trends reflect a genuine increase of zygomycosis cases in at-risk populations.

Host-related risk factors and clinical features of community-acquired legionnaires disease due to the Paris and Lorraine endemic strains, 1998-2007, France.

BACKGROUND: In France, Legionnaires disease is mainly caused by Legionella pneumophila. Here, we investigated possible host factors associated with susceptibility to community-acquired Legionnaires disease caused by the endemic Paris and Lorraine strains. METHODS: We conducted a double-nested exploratory case-control study with use of data from the French national surveillance network of incident Legionnaires disease cases notified from 1998 through 2007. Patients with community-acquired Legionnaires disease and an L. pneumophila serogroup 1 isolate were eligible. Case patients were patients infected by the Paris or Lorraine strain, and control patients were those infected by sporadic strains. Epidemiological and clinical factors associated with infection with the Paris and Lorraine strains were assessed by calculating adjusted odds ratios (aOR) in multivariate logistic regression models. RESULTS: We studied 1090 patients infected by sporadic strains (n = 920), the Paris strain (n = 80), or the Lorraine strain (n = 90). Infection with the Paris strain was significantly associated with female sex (aOR, 1.98; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.19-3.28), steroid therapy (aOR, 3.16; 95% CI, 1.76-5.68), and a history of cancer or hematologic malignancies (aOR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.15-3.76). In addition, the mortality rate was higher among patients infected with the Paris strain than in the control group (38% vs. 25.5%). The Lorraine strain was associated with smoking (aOR, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.14-2.91) and reduced mortality (9.9%). . CONCLUSION: Several host characteristics were associated with the risk of infection by endemic strains of L. pneumophila serogroup 1. These findings may help to guide preventive measures. Factors predisposing patients to infection by specific strains need to be explored further.

[Risk of importation of tropical diseases in metropolitan France: dectection, alert, response]. / Risques d'importation des maladies infectieuses exotiques en France métropolitaine: détection, alerte et réponse.

The French public health institute is responsible for promoting and coordinating threats the detection and assessment of health risks, and for suggesting possible responses. Transmissible diseases affecting both human and animal health are the focus of surveillance networks. Early detection of potential infectious threats is based on the screening of "alert signals" identified through routine surveillance networks and other systems. The quality and accuracy of these signals is first verified, before assessing, through a multidisciplinary approach, the risk of introduction and dissemination. This article examines specific cases illustrating the process of detection, risk analysis and response, with respect to infectious threats that are endemic in tropical regions and have the potential to be imported into metropolitan France. For both novel pathogens and exotic diseases--which, not being endemic in France, are less well known--the analysis and response process must regularly be adapted to the latest epidemiological, clinical and biological findings, taking interactions between the pathogen, host, and environment into consideration. The need to improve reaction times and risk assessment is also discussed.

[Epidemiology of tuberculosis in France]. / Epidémiologie de la tuberculose en France.

Tuberculosis causes an ever-increasing public health burden throughout the world and is one of the World Health Organization's top priorities. In France, the incidence of tuberculosis has been stable at around 10 cases per 100 000 inhabitants per year since 1997. In 2004, the incidence rate in 2004 was 9.2 per 100 000, with substantial geographic disparities: the Ile-de-France region (including Paris and its suburbs) accounted for more than 40% of all reported cases (20.8 per 100 000). Incidence rates of tuberculosis vary according to the geographic origin: in France, this rate is highest among people from sub-Saharan Africa (incidence rate: 166.7 per 100.000 compared with 5.0 per 100.000 for those born in France). Pulmonary tuberculosis is the disease form most commonly observed (71.5% of cases). Among those cases, 76.9% were laboratory-confirmed in 2004. National guidelines to improve case management and disease control were updated in 2003 and 2005. Funding must be made available to reinforce tuberculosis surveillance and to conduct public health initiatives targeted at the populations most at risk.